Everything below concerns lyophilized powder. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-01-13. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
AOD-9604 has been investigated primarily as a potential treatment for obesity and related metabolic conditions. Early laboratory work examined its effects on fat cells, and later studies moved into animal models and human clinical trials. Some trials reportedly reached Phase II, but the program did not lead to an approved medicine. Published summaries often note that weight-loss results were modest or inconsistent. The full trial data are not all publicly available in detail.
Regulatory treatment of AOD-9604 has varied. In sports anti-doping, the peptide became widely discussed during a 2013 investigation into an Australian professional sports club. Authorities at the time debated whether it fell under prohibitions on growth hormone and related substances. Later clarifications and updated lists have addressed the compound in different ways. Anyone seeking current status should consult the latest applicable rules, and commercial supply for human use is not authorized in major markets.
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide that corresponds to a short section of human growth hormone. It is commonly identified as hGH fragment 176-191 because its sequence matches residues at the C-terminal end of the hormone. The molecule contains sixteen amino acids and is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Researchers study it for metabolic effects rather than for the growth-promoting actions associated with full human growth hormone. Its small size distinguishes it from the complete 191-amino-acid hormone.
Several names appear in scientific and commercial settings. AOD9604 and AOD-9604 are development codes used interchangeably, while hGH fragment 176-191 describes the same region. The peptide includes a disulfide bond between two cysteine residues, which helps shape its three-dimensional structure. Different suppliers may provide acetate or other salt forms, and purity can vary. These differences matter because analytical tests and biological assays can respond to the specific form being studied.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research area | Obesity and metabolic regulation | Studied in cell, animal, and human models |
| Highest reported trial phase | Phase II | Public summaries describe mixed results |
| Common route in trials | Subcutaneous injection | Typical for peptide therapeutics |
| Regulatory example | 2013 Australian anti-doping review | Classification was debated at the time |
| Approval status | Not approved as a human medicine | Status can change by jurisdiction |
Analytical characterization of AOD-9604 typically employs reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) to assess purity and identity. Mass spectrometry provides confirmation of molecular mass, while amino acid analysis can verify composition. These methods are standard for peptide research chemicals. Because the peptide lacks a distinct chromophore, detection often relies on ultraviolet absorbance at 214 nm or mass spectrometric response. Laboratories may also use capillary electrophoresis for separation. For example, size-exclusion chromatography can detect aggregates.
Stability of AOD-9604 depends on storage conditions. Lyophilized powder is generally more stable than reconstituted solution. Recommended storage is typically at -20°C or lower, protected from light and moisture. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles can cause aggregation or degradation. In solution, the peptide may be susceptible to hydrolysis or oxidation, so aliquoting and cold storage are common practices. Researchers often add stabilizers such as mannitol or trehalose during lyophilization to improve shelf life.
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide modeled on the C-terminal region of human growth hormone. It is often described as hGH fragment 176-191. Research interest arose because it was designed to isolate possible effects on fat metabolism from other actions of growth hormone. It is not a full growth hormone molecule. Its development history includes early laboratory and animal studies followed by human trials. The peptide has been examined in laboratory, animal, and limited human studies.
The compound has been studied as a potential treatment for obesity and related metabolic conditions. Published trials have examined changes in body weight, fat mass, and safety markers over limited durations. Results have been mixed or modest, and no large-scale outcome trials are established. Regulatory agencies in several countries have not approved it as a therapeutic drug. Some commercial products have been marketed outside regulated pharmaceutical channels, which raises questions about quality and claims.
"RCSB Protein Data Bank - Structure Summary for 1Z7C - Crystal Structure of Human Placental Lactogen". "Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin Enhancer Function Is Mediated by Cooperative Binding of TEF-1 and CSEF-1 to Multiple, Low-Affinity Binding Sites". Archived from the original on 2008-07-05.
== Emulsifiers == An emulsifier is a substance that stabilizes an emulsion by reducing the oil-water interface tension. Emulsifiers are a part of a broader group of compounds known as surfactants, or "surface-active agents". Surfactants are compounds that are typically amphiphilic, meaning they have a polar or hydrophilic (water-soluble) part and a non-polar (hydrophobic or lipophilic) part. Emulsifiers that are more soluble in water (and, conversely, less soluble in oil) will generally form oil-in-water emulsions, while emulsifiers that are more soluble in oil will form water-in-oil emulsions. The following are examples of food emulsifiers:
Selected-ion flow-tube mass spectrometry (SIFT-MS) is a quantitative mass spectrometry technique for trace gas analysis which involves the chemical ionization of trace volatile compounds by selected positive precursor ions during a well-defined time period along a flow tube. Absolute concentrations of trace compounds present in air, breath or the headspace of bottled liquid samples can be calculated in real time from the ratio of the precursor and product ion signal ratios, without the need for sample preparation or calibration with standard mixtures. The detection limit of commercially available SIFT-MS instruments extends to the single digit pptv range. The instrument is an extension of the selected ion flow tube, SIFT, technique, which was first described in 1976 by Adams and Smith. It is a fast flow tube/ion swarm method to react positive or negative ions with atoms and molecules under truly thermalised conditions over a wide range of temperatures. It has been used extensively to study ion-molecule reaction kinetics. Its application to ionospheric and interstellar ion chemistry over a 20-year period has been crucial to the advancement and understanding of these topics. SIFT-MS was initially developed for use in human breath analysis, and has shown great promise as a non-invasive tool for physiological monitoring and disease diagnosis. It has since shown potential for use across a wide variety of fields, particularly in the life sciences, such as agriculture and animal husbandry, environmental research and food technology.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Though these events served as inspiration for the field, the actual breakthrough in practical approaches to synthesize artificial molecular machines (AMMs) took place in 1991 with the invention of a "molecular shuttle" by Sir Fraser Stoddart. Building upon the assembly of mechanically linked molecules such as catenanes and rotaxanes as developed by Jean-Pierre Sauvage in the early 1980s, this shuttle features a rotaxane with a ring that can move across an "axle" between two ends or possible binding sites (hydroquinone units). This design realized the well-defined motion of a molecular unit across the length of the molecule for the first time. In 1994, an improved design allowed control over the motion of the ring by pH variation or electrochemical methods, making it the first example of an AMM. Here the two binding sites are a benzidine and a biphenol unit; the cationic ring typically prefers staying over the benzidine ring, but moves over to the biphenol group when the benzidine gets protonated at low pH or if it gets electrochemically oxidized. In 1998, a study could capture the rotary motion of a decacyclene molecule on a copper-base metallic surface using a scanning tunneling microscope. Over the following decade, a broad variety of AMMs responding to various stimuli were invented for different applications. In 2016, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Sauvage, Stoddart, and Bernard L. Feringa for the design and synthesis of molecular machines.
Andy Street, the Mayor of the West Midlands, announces that he and his Manchester counterpart, Andy Burnham, are to meet Mark Harper, the Secretary of State for Transport, to discuss proposals for a privately funded alternative to the abandoned Manchester leg of HS2. The UK is to lend several pieces of the Ghana crown jewels back to Ghana 150 years after looting them from the court of the Asante king. 25 January The UK government announces fresh plans to ban the sale of zombie knives, with legislation taking effect from the autumn. Lloyds Banking Group announces plans to cut around 1,600 positions from its branch staff in a reorganisation that it says is because more customers are banking online. 26 January Buckingham Palace confirms that King Charles III has been admitted to hospital for treatment for an enlarged prostate. Jürgen Klopp, currently the longest-serving manager in the Premier League, announces he is departing as manager of Liverpool F.C. after the conclusion of the 2023–24 season, and taking a break from football management. 27 January The UK government suspends funding for the UN agency for Palestinian refugees, UNRWA, after the organisation sacked several officials reported to have been involved in the 7 October attacks on Israel. Kemi Badenoch, the business secretary, asks Henry Staunton to step down as chair of Post Office Limited after 13 months in the role, as the government moves to strengthen governance at the Post Office in the wake of the long-running Horizon IT scandal.
== Ligand variations == Since the initial MPAA ligand report, many variations of bifunctional ligands derived from amino acids have been developed. Bidentate MPAQ (mono-protected amino quinoline) ligands were introduced in the application of β-methylene C–H bonds in aliphatic amides. The highly successful MPAO (mono-protected amino oxazoline) ligand allowed for C(sp3)–H functionalization via arylation of α-methyls, borylation of cyclobutyl carboxylic amides, and boronic cross coupling of alkyl amines. MPAAM (mono-protected aminoalkyl amine) ligands were used in enantioselective C(sp3)–H arylations of free aliphatic acids without the need for exogenous directing groups. Variations of the MPAAThio (mono-protected aminoalkyl thioether) ligands have been use in olefination of free carboxylic acids and arylation, carbonylation, and olefination of free aliphatic amines. Expanding the reaction substrate scope to non-directed C(sp2)–H bonds, pyridone ligands were developed to functionalize arenes and heteroarenes which proved to be particularly useful in late-state derivatization of bioactive compounds such as estrone, caffeine, and camptothecin. Many analogues of the pyridine-pyridone (azine-pyridone) ligands were developed and used in the C(sp2)–H hydroxylation of (hetero)arenes and the dehydrogenation of methylene C(sp3)–H bonds on alkyl free acids.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== 1900–1999 ==== Local Government (Scotland) Act 1975 (Local Authority Borrowing Limit) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1900) Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors (Entry to Examinations and Training Requirements) Amendment Rules Approval Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1901) Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act 1993 (Commencement No. 1 and Transitional Provisions) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1908) Trade Union Ballots and Elections (Independent Scrutineer Qualifications) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1909) Teddington Memorial Hospital National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Amendment Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1932) Money Laundering Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/1933) Public Telecommunication System Designation (Scottish Hydro-Electric plc) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1934) Public Telecommunication System Designation (Energis Communications Limited) Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1935) Education (Assisted Places) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/1936) Education (Assisted Places) (Incidental Expenses) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/1937) Education (Grants) (Music and Ballet Schools) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/1938) Social Security (Disability Living Allowance) (Amendment) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/1939) Food Protection (Emergency Prohibitions) (Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning) (No.4 and No.7) Orders 1993 Revocation Order 1993 (S.I. 1993/1940) Value Added Tax (General) (Amendment) (No. 6) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/1941) Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) (Amendment) (No. 1) Regulations 1993 (S.I. 1993/1946) Tobacco Products Labelling (Safety) Amendment Regulations 1993 (S.I.
==== Breast cancer ==== The feasibility of 68Ga-Trivehexin PET imaging of breast cancer (BC) was demonstrated in a case of triple-negative BC. Another report suggested that 68Ga-Trivehexin PET/CT might offer superior detection efficacy for breast cancer compared to 18F-FDG PET/CT. Furthermore, in progesterone- and estrogen-receptor negative BC with elevated Ki67 proliferation index and strong E-cadherin, 68Ga-Trivehexin PET identified several 18F-FDG-avid lymph nodes as false positives. In a patient with lobular BC and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor (PNET), 68Ga-Trivehexin selectively showed a PET signal only in the lobular carcinoma, while the metabolic tracer 18F-FGD and the neuroendocrine tumor tracer 68Ga-DOTATATE yielded PET signals for both the BC and PNET lesions.
=== Climate === Raleigh has a four-season humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa). Winters are generally cool, with a normal January daily mean temperature of 41.9 °F (5.5 °C). On average, there are 69 nights per year that drop to or below freezing, and only 2.7 days that fail to rise above freezing. Raleigh receives an average annual rainfall of 46.07 in (117.0 cm). Annual and monthly temperature and precipitation data are in chart below, based on 1991–2020 climate data. February is the driest month, with an average of 2.78 in (70.6 mm) of precipitation. Precipitation is well distributed around the year, with a slight maximum between July and September, owing to generally frequent, sometimes heavy, showers and thunderstorms, and the threat of tropical weather systems (primarily from August to early October) bringing heavy rainfall. Summers are hot and humid, with a normal July daily mean temperature of 80.5 °F (26.9 °C). There are 48 days per year with highs at or above 90 °F (32 °C). Autumn is similar to spring overall but has fewer days of rainfall, but greater potential for extremely heavy rainfall in a one/two-day period, owing to occasional threat from tropical weather systems (hurricanes and tropical storms) packing torrential rainfall. In September 1999, Raleigh recorded its wettest month ever, with over 530 mm or 21 in of rain, due to torrential rainfall from tropical weather systems, most notably Hurricane Floyd on September 15–16.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No major medicines regulator appears to have approved AOD-9604 for human therapeutic use. It has been studied in clinical trials, but those programs did not result in a marketed drug.
It became prominent during a 2013 Australian sports investigation that examined whether it was a prohibited growth-hormone-related substance. Subsequent interpretations and list updates have varied, so current rules should be checked directly.
Published summaries generally report limited or inconsistent weight-loss effects, and complete trial data are not widely available. The studies were not sufficient to establish it as an effective obesity treatment.
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide fragment of human growth hormone. It corresponds to the C-terminal region known as hGH 176-191 and is studied for metabolic effects. It is not an approved therapeutic drug.